Nile River
The NILE RIVER , the longest river in the world (6,650 kilometers), flows north from the heart of Africa to the Mediterranean Sea. Its flood plain was a magnet for life -- human, plant and animal. Humans were drawn there because they could grow crops and settle into permanent villages.
Bounded on the south, east and west by an impenetrable desert, and on the north by the sea,
ANCIENT EGYPT was protected from outside influences, which allowed it to evolve in its own unique way.
For centuries, THE NILE RIVER FLOODED THE VALLEY, enriching the land with a thick layer of alluvial soil. Flooding occurred from July to September as the result of the tropical rains in the Ethiopian tableland. The river attained its highest level in October, then began to recede to its lowest point sometime between April and June.
Bounded on the south, east and west by an impenetrable desert, and on the north by the sea,
ANCIENT EGYPT was protected from outside influences, which allowed it to evolve in its own unique way.
For centuries, THE NILE RIVER FLOODED THE VALLEY, enriching the land with a thick layer of alluvial soil. Flooding occurred from July to September as the result of the tropical rains in the Ethiopian tableland. The river attained its highest level in October, then began to recede to its lowest point sometime between April and June.
TRANSPORTATION: The Nile River was the highway that joined the country together. Up until the nineteenth century, travel by land was virtually unknown.
DUALITIES, such as desert and river valley, Upper and Lower Egypt, life and death, were an important organizing principle of the Egyptian’s world view.
Architecture
The ancient Egyptians built their pyramids, tombs, temples and palaces out of STONE, the most durable of all building materials. These building projects took a high degree of architectural and engineering SKILL, and the organization of a LARGE WORKFORCE consisting of highly trained craftsmen and laborers.
Apart from the pyramids, EGYPTIAN BUILDINGS were decorated with PAINTINGS, CARVED STONE IMAGES, HIEROGLYPHS, and THREE-DIMENSIONAL STATUES. The art tells the story of the pharaohs, the gods, the common people and the natural world of plants, birds and animals
Apart from the pyramids, EGYPTIAN BUILDINGS were decorated with PAINTINGS, CARVED STONE IMAGES, HIEROGLYPHS, and THREE-DIMENSIONAL STATUES. The art tells the story of the pharaohs, the gods, the common people and the natural world of plants, birds and animals
Pyramid
One of the oldest mysteries surrounding ancient Egypt concerns the building of the PYRAMIDS. How did humans move such massive blocks of stone using only Stone Age tools? The Egyptians left thousands of illustrations depicting daily life in the Old Kingdom. Curiously enough, none of them show how pyramids were built.
Theories how the pyramids were built
Ramp Theory
The ramp theory suggests that Egyptians built the Great Pyramid themselves, moving the limestone blocks into place with teams of workers. These workers were inspired primarily by religious conviction as well as a firm King. Most of the limestone was gathered from a quarry located on the Gizeh Plateau, however the finer white limestone used in the casing came from Tura which was located across the Nile. The Granite used to make the King’s burial chamber was taken from Aswan, and was ferried by boat to the pyramid site. The blocks were cut out and trimmed just before putting them into place. Stonemasons would clean and smooth the limestone once the structure was complete. To cut out the stones, copper chisels, wooden wedges and dolerite hammers were used. The Limestone was soft enough that these tools would work adequately with periodic sharpening.
Egyptians would haul the bricks of limestone to the pyramid using wooden rollers, rafts and sleds. They would make a trail in the clay and pour water along the track and pull the wooden rollers through the slippery track. The workers would then use mud and rubble to create a ramp in which they would slide the bricks into place. On higher levels it is thought that pulleys and ropes were used to hoist the bricks into place.
The ramp theory suggests that Egyptians built the Great Pyramid themselves, moving the limestone blocks into place with teams of workers. These workers were inspired primarily by religious conviction as well as a firm King. Most of the limestone was gathered from a quarry located on the Gizeh Plateau, however the finer white limestone used in the casing came from Tura which was located across the Nile. The Granite used to make the King’s burial chamber was taken from Aswan, and was ferried by boat to the pyramid site. The blocks were cut out and trimmed just before putting them into place. Stonemasons would clean and smooth the limestone once the structure was complete. To cut out the stones, copper chisels, wooden wedges and dolerite hammers were used. The Limestone was soft enough that these tools would work adequately with periodic sharpening.
Egyptians would haul the bricks of limestone to the pyramid using wooden rollers, rafts and sleds. They would make a trail in the clay and pour water along the track and pull the wooden rollers through the slippery track. The workers would then use mud and rubble to create a ramp in which they would slide the bricks into place. On higher levels it is thought that pulleys and ropes were used to hoist the bricks into place.
Crane Theory
THE WOODEN CRANE THEORY suggests that a wooden crane with a counterweight on one end may have been used to lift the blocks from one level to the next.
This theory has been DISPUTED, since the Egyptians did not have access to trees that were strong enough for this type of work.
The average weight of the STONE BLOCKS used to build the Great Pyramid at Giza has been estimated at 2.5 TONS. Such an enormous weight would undoubtedly break a wooden crane before the block could be lifted.
THE WOODEN CRANE THEORY suggests that a wooden crane with a counterweight on one end may have been used to lift the blocks from one level to the next.
This theory has been DISPUTED, since the Egyptians did not have access to trees that were strong enough for this type of work.
The average weight of the STONE BLOCKS used to build the Great Pyramid at Giza has been estimated at 2.5 TONS. Such an enormous weight would undoubtedly break a wooden crane before the block could be lifted.
Pulley and Fulcrum Theory
THE PULLEY AND FULCRUM THEORY: Another possibility involves the use of pulleys to hoist the blocks up the ramps and fulcrums to manipulate the blocks into place. Pulleys were used on ships at the time.
THE PULLEY AND FULCRUM THEORY: Another possibility involves the use of pulleys to hoist the blocks up the ramps and fulcrums to manipulate the blocks into place. Pulleys were used on ships at the time.
Government
GOVERNMENT and RELIGION were inseparable in ancient Egypt. The PHARAOH was the head of State and the divine representative of the gods on earth.
Religion and government brought order to society through:
Religion and government brought order to society through:
- The construction of TEMPLES
- The creation of LAWS
- TAXATION
- The ORGANIZATION OF LABOR
- TRADE with neighbors
- The DEFENSE of the country’s interests.
Ancient Egypt achieved stability through the co-operation of all levels of the population.
The PHAROAH was at the top of the social hierarchy.
Next to him, the most powerful officers were the VIZIERS, the executive heads of the bureaucracy.
Under them were the HIGH PRIESTS, followed by ROYAL OVERSEERS (administrators) who ensured that the 42 DISTRICT GOVERNORS carried out the pharaoh's orders.
At the bottom of the hierarchy were the SCRIBES, ARTISANS, FARMERS, and LABORERS.
Not all the pharaohs were men. Before the Graeco-Roman period, at least three WOMEN ascended the throne, the most important being Queen HATSHEPSUT.
ROYAL WOMEN: Royal mothers, wives, and daughters derived their status from their relationship with the king.
Kings had MANY WIVES and royal families were large.
The most prolific was Rameses II, who had eight wives and over a hundred children.
To keep the royal bloodline pure, kings often MARRIED within their family, a SISTER or half sister, for example.
In a few cases, they married their DAUGHTERS, although it is not clear whether or not these marriages were true conjugal unions.
The PHAROAH was at the top of the social hierarchy.
Next to him, the most powerful officers were the VIZIERS, the executive heads of the bureaucracy.
Under them were the HIGH PRIESTS, followed by ROYAL OVERSEERS (administrators) who ensured that the 42 DISTRICT GOVERNORS carried out the pharaoh's orders.
At the bottom of the hierarchy were the SCRIBES, ARTISANS, FARMERS, and LABORERS.
Not all the pharaohs were men. Before the Graeco-Roman period, at least three WOMEN ascended the throne, the most important being Queen HATSHEPSUT.
ROYAL WOMEN: Royal mothers, wives, and daughters derived their status from their relationship with the king.
Kings had MANY WIVES and royal families were large.
The most prolific was Rameses II, who had eight wives and over a hundred children.
To keep the royal bloodline pure, kings often MARRIED within their family, a SISTER or half sister, for example.
In a few cases, they married their DAUGHTERS, although it is not clear whether or not these marriages were true conjugal unions.
Writing
The EGYPTIAN LANGUAGE was one of the earliest languages to be written down, perhaps only the Sumerian language is older.
First appearing on stone and pottery dating from 3100 B.C. to 3000 B.C., it remained in use for almost 3,000 years.
The last inscription was written in A.D. 394.
The word HIEROGLYPH literally means "sacred carvings". The Egyptians first used hieroglyphs for inscriptions carved or painted on temple walls.
This form of PICTORIAL WRITING was also used on:
The ability to write guaranteed a SUPERIOR RANK IN SOCIETY and the possibility of career advancement.
CLIMBING THE SOCIAL LADDER was difficult, but it could be achieved through outstanding accomplishments in professions such as that of the scribes and the military.
To make the paper-like writing material, the exterior of the PAPYRUS stem was discarded and the interior was cut into thin strips.
The strips were soaked in water and beaten to break down and flatten the fibers.
They were then layered crosswise and lengthwise to produce a sheet, which was beaten again to mesh the strips together.
Weights were placed on the sheets while they dried.
Once dry, the sheets were rolled up and stored until needed.
BELIEF ABOUT DEATH
The JUDGMENT OF THE DEAD was a way of attaining new life. The deceased were taken before OSIRIS and their hearts were weighed on a scale, against a feather representing MAAT, the goddess of truth and justice.
Those who were good passed through to the new life as transfigured spirits.
Those who were judged as wicked, were tossed to the goddess AMEMET, "the swallower." who was portrayed as having the rear of a hippopotamus, the fore of a lion, and the head of a crocodile.
The BOOK OF THE DEAD contains approximately 190 chapters of spells to assist the deceased on their voyage to eternity.
Texts were originally written on papyrus and placed near the dead.
One spell was inscribed on a heart scarab –an amulet placed over the heart either within the mummy's bandages or inside the body.
Later, the spells were written on strips of linen that were wrapped around the mummies.
First appearing on stone and pottery dating from 3100 B.C. to 3000 B.C., it remained in use for almost 3,000 years.
The last inscription was written in A.D. 394.
The word HIEROGLYPH literally means "sacred carvings". The Egyptians first used hieroglyphs for inscriptions carved or painted on temple walls.
This form of PICTORIAL WRITING was also used on:
- Tombs
- Sheets of papyrus
- Wooden boards covered with a stucco wash
- Potsherds
- Fragments of limestone.
The ability to write guaranteed a SUPERIOR RANK IN SOCIETY and the possibility of career advancement.
CLIMBING THE SOCIAL LADDER was difficult, but it could be achieved through outstanding accomplishments in professions such as that of the scribes and the military.
To make the paper-like writing material, the exterior of the PAPYRUS stem was discarded and the interior was cut into thin strips.
The strips were soaked in water and beaten to break down and flatten the fibers.
They were then layered crosswise and lengthwise to produce a sheet, which was beaten again to mesh the strips together.
Weights were placed on the sheets while they dried.
Once dry, the sheets were rolled up and stored until needed.
BELIEF ABOUT DEATH
The JUDGMENT OF THE DEAD was a way of attaining new life. The deceased were taken before OSIRIS and their hearts were weighed on a scale, against a feather representing MAAT, the goddess of truth and justice.
Those who were good passed through to the new life as transfigured spirits.
Those who were judged as wicked, were tossed to the goddess AMEMET, "the swallower." who was portrayed as having the rear of a hippopotamus, the fore of a lion, and the head of a crocodile.
The BOOK OF THE DEAD contains approximately 190 chapters of spells to assist the deceased on their voyage to eternity.
Texts were originally written on papyrus and placed near the dead.
One spell was inscribed on a heart scarab –an amulet placed over the heart either within the mummy's bandages or inside the body.
Later, the spells were written on strips of linen that were wrapped around the mummies.
RELIGION
RELIGION is the glue that binds local communities together and transforms them into nations. It creates common understandings and shared values that are essential to the growth of a civilization.
The ancient Egyptians believed in the RESURRECTION OF THE BODY and life everlasting. This belief was rooted in what they observed each day.
The sun fell into the western horizon each evening and was reborn the next morning in the east.
New life sprouted from grains planted in the earth, and the moon waxed and waned.
As long as order was maintained, everything was highly dependable and life after death could be achieved. But there were certain conditions.
For example, the body had to be preserved through MUMMIFICATION and given a properly furnished tomb with everything needed for life in the afterworld.
"As much of the brain as it is possible is extracted through the nostrils with an iron hook, and what the hook cannot reach is dissolved with drugs. Next, the flank is slit open . . . and the entire contents of the abdomen removed. The cavity is then thoroughly cleansed and washed out . . . Then it is filled with pure crushed myrrh, cassia, and all other aromatic substances, except frankincense. [The incision] is sewn up, and then the body is placed in natron, covered entirely for 70 days, never longer. When this period . . . is ended, the body is washed and then wrapped from the head to the feet in linen which has been cut into strips and smeared on the underside with gum which is commonly used by the Egyptians in the place of glue. " -- Herodotus
NATRON, a disinfectant and dehydration agent, was the main ingredient used in the mummification process. A compound of sodium carbonate and sodium bicarbonate (salt and baking soda), natron essentially dried out the corpse.
The body was filled with Nile mud, sawdust, lichen and cloth scraps to make it more flexible.
Small COOKING ONIONS or linen pads were sometimes used to replace the eyes.
Beginning in the third dynasty, the internal organs (lungs, stomach, liver and intestines) were removed, washed with palm wine and spices, and stored in four separate CANOPIC JARS made of limestone, calcite or clay.
However, the HEART was left in the body because it was considered the center of intelligence
The ancient Egyptians believed in the RESURRECTION OF THE BODY and life everlasting. This belief was rooted in what they observed each day.
The sun fell into the western horizon each evening and was reborn the next morning in the east.
New life sprouted from grains planted in the earth, and the moon waxed and waned.
As long as order was maintained, everything was highly dependable and life after death could be achieved. But there were certain conditions.
For example, the body had to be preserved through MUMMIFICATION and given a properly furnished tomb with everything needed for life in the afterworld.
"As much of the brain as it is possible is extracted through the nostrils with an iron hook, and what the hook cannot reach is dissolved with drugs. Next, the flank is slit open . . . and the entire contents of the abdomen removed. The cavity is then thoroughly cleansed and washed out . . . Then it is filled with pure crushed myrrh, cassia, and all other aromatic substances, except frankincense. [The incision] is sewn up, and then the body is placed in natron, covered entirely for 70 days, never longer. When this period . . . is ended, the body is washed and then wrapped from the head to the feet in linen which has been cut into strips and smeared on the underside with gum which is commonly used by the Egyptians in the place of glue. " -- Herodotus
NATRON, a disinfectant and dehydration agent, was the main ingredient used in the mummification process. A compound of sodium carbonate and sodium bicarbonate (salt and baking soda), natron essentially dried out the corpse.
The body was filled with Nile mud, sawdust, lichen and cloth scraps to make it more flexible.
Small COOKING ONIONS or linen pads were sometimes used to replace the eyes.
Beginning in the third dynasty, the internal organs (lungs, stomach, liver and intestines) were removed, washed with palm wine and spices, and stored in four separate CANOPIC JARS made of limestone, calcite or clay.
However, the HEART was left in the body because it was considered the center of intelligence
MATERIALS USED IN MUMMIFICATION:
- Linen
- Sawdust
- Lichen
- Beeswax
- Resin
- Natron
- Onion
- Nile mud
- Linen pads
- Frankincense
MUMMIFICATION TOOLS:
The ancient embalmers used very few tools. The basic tool kit included a KNIFE to make the abdominal incision, hooked bronze RODS to extract brain matter, a wooden ADZE-like tool to remove internal organs, and a FUNNEL to pour resins into the cranial cavity through the nose.
The ancient embalmers used very few tools. The basic tool kit included a KNIFE to make the abdominal incision, hooked bronze RODS to extract brain matter, a wooden ADZE-like tool to remove internal organs, and a FUNNEL to pour resins into the cranial cavity through the nose.
Here the gods of the dead performed the WEIGHING OF THE HEART ceremony to judge whether the person's earthly deeds were virtuous.
The person’s heart was placed on a scale, counterbalanced by a feather that represented Maat, the goddess of truth and justice.
If the heart was equal in weight to the feather, the person was justified and achieved immortality. If not, it was devoured by the goddess Amemet. This meant that the person would not survive in the afterlife.
The person’s heart was placed on a scale, counterbalanced by a feather that represented Maat, the goddess of truth and justice.
If the heart was equal in weight to the feather, the person was justified and achieved immortality. If not, it was devoured by the goddess Amemet. This meant that the person would not survive in the afterlife.